Twelve States

Twelve States

“In a true democracy every citizen has a vote”

History of Woman Suffrage, Vol. VI

              Congress passed the Federal Suffrage Bill on June 4, 1919. Fourteen months, 3 weeks and 1 day later the 19^th Amendment was added to the Constitution.  Tennessee was the 36^th state to ratify.  The Tennessee House voted 50 to 46 on August 18, 1920 after the Senate had approved the measure 25 to 4.  After attempts to nullify the vote failed, Governor Roberts mailed the certificate of ratification at noon, August 24 to the Secretary of State Colby in Washington, D.C., who received it in the morning of August 26 and immediately proclaimed the 19^th Amendment part of the Constitution.    This success capped monumental efforts that lasted 72 years to gain equal voting rights for women.  These efforts included clever parades, serious arguments, collecting and delivering petitions, fund-raising, publishing magazines, holding conferences and conventions.  Suffragists were arrested, beaten, imprisoned, denied lawyers, sometimes kept in solitary confinement and force-fed.  Trumped-up charges included obstructing traffic when standing with banners in front of the White House.

              Many state legislatures were not scheduled to meet in those crucial months before the 1920 election.  Governors called special sessions in 29 states that ratified.  Some legislatures ratified in unanimous votes of both state houses.  In several the vote was close.  In Maine the House vote was 72 to 68.  The New Hampshire Senate vote was 14 to 10 and in West Virginia the Senate vote was 15 to 14.  All these affirmative votes bear testimony to the skills, determination and fairness arguments of two generations of suffragists.

              Twelve states still resisted, some until 1940 and 1984, but one did pass soon after the 1920 election.  This state was Kentucky and the date had to wait until the legislator convened on January 6, 1921.  The vote in Kentucky Senate was 30 yes and 8 no; the House was 72 ayes and 25 nos.  The evening before the elections the legislators were honored by a speech of Emmeline Pankhurst celebrating the vote in the British Parliament approving the vote of women who were 30 years old and possessed property.

              Still these efforts that succeeded in 36 states failed in 12 states. With this wealth of womanpower across the country, what happened in those 12 states whose legislators did not vote for woman suffrage before it became part of our constitution?  State by state, presented here are some actions of the male legislators and other groups that thwarted these intrepid women and men suffrage workers. Facts about the work of some suffragists and the development of some state suffrage associations are included.  Many more facts about all states and territories can be found in the 6-volume History of Woman Suffrage.

CONNECTICUT

The Connecticut legislature’s regular session adjourned before Congress voted to ratify the Federal Suffrage Amendment on June 4, 1919.  During this regular session, suffragists pushed for a Presidential suffrage bill.  Their efforts included obtaining 102,000 signatures on a petition.  A large majority of the legislators promised to vote for the bill, but strong hostility from the Republican “machine” caused many to switch their vote and the bill lost by a single vote.

              The General Assembly would not meet until 1921, but a special session could be called by the Governor “on special emergencies.”  Governor Holcomb saw no “special emergency” in spite of repeated requests in the summer of 1919. A petition signed by 478 prominent Republicans did not move the Governor in February 1920.  In March ratification by Washington State provided the 35^th state’s approval – which state would be the 36^th?  Again Governor Holcomb asked for proof of an emergency.  The NAWSA brought women from across the country to gain public support for a special session.  May 3-7, 1920 was declared “emergency week.”  A Suffrage Emergency Corps was organized with 46 eminent women from 46 states, including doctors, lawyers, professors, scientists, business women and presidents of many organizations.  They divided into 4 groups and spoke at mass meetings at the 4 biggest cities.  Carrie Catt spoke at the beginning of this tour which then went to 36 towns.

              The Governor met for an interview on Friday, May 7.  The next Tuesday he insisted that this “strong desire” of the public did not prove the “special emergency” required by the state constitution.

              Republican women suffragists pledged no money or work or support for candidates for whom they could not vote.  Women went to Columbus, Ohio to speak to members of the Republican National Executive Committee to remind them of the plank passed on June 1, 1920 urging Republican States to ratify the 19^th Amendment.  They pointed to Delaware and Vermont who also had Republican governors.  The Republican presidential candidate Warren Harding refused to contact or attempt to convince Holcomb to call a special session.

              After Tennessee became the 36^th State on August 26, Governor Holcomb was obliged to call a special session on September 14, 1919, to pass legislation for registering women to vote.  The Connecticut session ratified the 19^th Amendment by unanimous vote in the Senate and 216 to 11 in the House on September 14, 1919, but could not be included in victory parades in 1919.

VERMONT

The Vermont Woman Suffrage Association was formed in 1883.  Among other prominent suffragists, Henry Blackwell addressed many state conventions until his death at 84 in 1908.  That year the Governor, Lieutenant Governor and Secretary of State signed the suffrage petition, focusing on a State Constitutional amendment.

In 1919 the intensive drive to include Vermont in the 36 states needed for ratification almost succeeded.  Pledges to ratify were obtained from enough legislators to pass the measure if a special session were called by Governor Clement.  In April 400 women came from 12 of the 14 counties to urge him to call a special session.  In May the State Republican convention urged a special session.  Candidate Warren Harding and other national Republican leaders urged a special session.  The cost of these efforts to get a special session was $7,442.  The NAWSA provided $2,578 and the Leslie Woman Suffrage Commission gave $4,864.

Governor Clement would have none of it.  On July 12 he made the assertion that “the Federal Constitution in its present form threatened the foundation of free popular government; the 16^th Amendment, providing for a federal income tax, was lobbied through by paid agents of irresponsible organizations with unlimited funds.”  He further claimed that supporters were trying to “force through the 19^th Amendment for woman suffrage in the same manner.”  He continued: “I will never be a party to any proceeding which proposes to change the organic law of the State without the consent of the people . . . The National Constitution threatens free popular government alike as it stands and as it is interpreted by the Supreme Court.  Its decision leaves the people at the mercy of any group of men who may

lobby a proposal for a change in it through Congress and then through the Legislatures.”

              On February 8, 1921 Vermont legislators ratified the 19^th Amendment.

DELAWARE

Governor John Townsend declared his support for woman suffrage in his inaugural address in 1917.  Two years later he spoke at the State Suffrage convention.  “I feel more than ever since the war that women should have the ballot.  I will be glad at any time to use my influence toward giving those of Delaware the right of suffrage.” 

              When the ratification process began in June 1919, local suffragists organized by counties, interviewed influential men, secured endorsements from Republican and Democratic leaders as well as labor groups and the State Federation of Women’s Clubs.  All 53 legislators were interviewed; a majority in both parties promised ratification.  All looked well for a favorable vote.  Suffragists were encouraged and felt hopeful Delaware would ratify

              But when the special session began on March 22, 1920, the 3 main newspapers did not support ratification.  Opponents and their lobbyists flooded the legislature.  One of the lobbyists was the husband of the president of the Anti-Suffrage Association.  A prominent Republican, Henry Scott, declared, “If the Legislature will refuse to ratify the proposed amendment and thus prevent the hysterical rout of the politicians of the country to make shreds and patches of our sacred Constitution, the State of Delaware will receive in the near future the greatest possible glory.”  (History of Woman Suffrage, p. 97.)   The Senate vote was 11 to 6 for ratification in spite of intense pressure.  The House voted to adjourn rather than be counted.  So Delaware failed to be the 36^th State.

              On March 6, 1923 Delaware legislators ratified the 19^th Amendment.

MARYLAND

Mary Garrett and M. Carey Thomas helped Maryland host the 1905 convention of the National American Woman Suffrage Association. This was the last convention attended by Susan B. Anthony.  In succeeding years Belva Lockwood, Charlotte Perkins Gilman and other national figures spoke and wrote on suffrage issues.  From 1900 to 1910 the State Woman Suffrage Association helped put pictures of suffrage leaders in public schools and gave the History of Woman Suffrage and the Life of Susan B. Anthony to public libraries.  Prizes were given for essays on suffrage.

In 1911 the Maryland Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage was organized in Baltimore.  It was part of the national organization and in later years raised money to send Maryland legislators to Virginia, North Carolina and Tennessee.

The Federal Woman Suffrage Amendment was submitted by Governor Ritchie to the regular meeting of the General Assembly in February 1920.  Speaker Tydings transferred the amendment from the Committee on Constitutional Amendments (whose members were in favor) to the Committee on Federal Relations (whose members were opposed.)  In spite of strong support from labor groups, teachers, nurses, patriotic societies and other groups, the Governor said he could not influence the Assembly.  Ratification failed 18 to 9 in the Senate and 64 to 36 in the House.  Anti-Suffrage women carried the vote to Washington with the statement that “the state of Maryland denies the lawful right and power of Congress to propose the amendment for woman suffrage and the validity of such an amendment as part of the Federal Constitution even if ratified by three-fourths of the States.”

Members of the General Assembly were not content simply to defeat ratification.  With financial aid from the Maryland Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage, seven members went to West Virginia on February 24 to urge defeat.  Here they failed to influence; West Virginia became the 34^th state to ratify on March 10, 1920. Further mischief included authorizing the Maryland Attorney General to bring suit to prevent the Federal Amendment being proclaimed until referendums were held in certain states and claiming the Amendment violated the amending power of Article V of the Constitution.  This group claimed ratification votes by West Virginia and Missouri were illegal.  Lower courts upheld the validity of these votes in April 1921 and the Supreme Court concurred on June 28, 1921.

On March 29, 1941 Maryland legislators ratified the 19^th Amendment; ratification was certified on February 25, 1958.

VIRGINIA

In 1778 Hannah Lee Corbin protested against taxation without representation.  Her brother, Richard Henry Lee (Lighthorse Harry) responded that the clause in the constitution granting the vote to householders gave her the vote.   Sadly, he spoke in the wilderness.  By 1909 the Equal Suffrage League of Virginia was holding meetings and the next year was petitioning Congress for a Federal Amendment.  Ellen Glasgow was an early strong supporter.  By 1919, 32,000 men and women belonged to 175 groups of the League.  Delegates went to Republican and Democratic State Conventions, asking for Party endorsements for woman suffrage.  “The Republicans, the minority party, always received them courteously and a few times put the plank in their platform.  The Democrats always treated them with discourtesy and never endorsed woman suffrage in any way until 1920...”(History, Vol. 6, p.667)

              A special session of the Legislature was called for August 13, 1919 to meet guidelines for federal appropriations for good roads.  A questionnaire sent to all members convinced the Equal Suffrage League that ratification was impossible, in spite of strong pressure from President Wilson, other prominent Democrats, college presidents, mayors, and Lady Astor, M.P. of Great Britain, a Virginian by birth.

              Carrie Chapman Catt addressed this joint session and was ridiculed in the most insulting terms the next day by Harry St. George Tucker.  In 1921 he was a candidate for Governor and was defeated by 40,000 votes by Senator E. Lee Trinkle who was a strong supporter of woman suffrage. Governor Trinkle’s victory was attributed to the woman vote.

              On February 21, 1952 Virginia legislators ratified the 19^th Amendment.

ALABAMA

The first woman suffrage amendment to the Alabama State constitution was introduced in 1915.  Fourteen of the sixteen members of the House Committee of Privileges and Elections pledged to support it, but instead they “postponed indefinitely” the bill.  Suffragists, joined by United Daughters of the Confederacy, wage earners’ groups, and assisted by Lavinia Engle, field organizer of the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) selected Joe Green, whom they thought was an ally, to introduce the bill in the House.  Then he joined 42 other members to make the vote 52 to 43 and thereby deny the three-fifths required majority.

              Still the suffragists persisted.  In 1917, more than 200 attended a “suffrage school” and more than 81 suffrage clubs were active across the state.  The state headquarters in Selma produced and sent press bulletins to 34 newspapers and maintained 4 traveling libraries of suffrage materials.

              The suffrage organizations turned to war work in 1917, but maintained pressure on Senators Bankhead and Underwood to support the suffrage amendment.  The State association raised over $10,000 for state work and paid more than its pledge of $1,000 to the NAWSA.

              President Wilson telegraphed Governor Kilby to urge support for suffrage “based upon . . . justice and expedience” to no avail.  The Southern Women’s Anti-Ratification League was formed in June 1919 and included Marie Bankhead Owen, daughter of Senator Bankhead as one of the officers.  This group sent a memorial to the Legislature meeting in July which began: “We look with confidence to you to protect us from this device of northern Abolitionists.”  The Senate vote in the Alabama Legislature was 13 to 19.  After this vote, House members who had promised “aye” votes recanted and voted 31-60 against the suffrage bill.

              After national victory on August 26, a victory parade was held in Birmingham where 1500 participated, including a brass band and 36 automobiles filled with banners, flags and flowers – labeled and driven in the order the States had ratified the Federal Amendment.

              On September 8, 1953 Alabama legislators ratified the 19^th Amendment.

FLORIDA
              The cause of woman suffrage was languishing in Florida for a decade when in 1907 a businessman of Orlando, John Schnarr, petitioned Congress for a Federal Suffrage Amendment, renewing the drive by women and men to win woman suffrage.  In 1912 the Equal Franchise League was organized with about 30 members and two years later the NAWSA sent Lavinia Engle to assist in dealing with members of the legislature. Jeannette Rankin went with League officers to speak for an amendment to the State constitution which failed in the House 26 to 38.   That year a Men’s Equal Suffrage League was begun in Orlando with the mayor as president.  These groups formed classes to study history and learn the duties of citizenship.  By 1918, 38 county chairmen had obtained about 2,500 signatures to petition the legislature to pass a bill for Primary suffrage for women as had been won in Arkansas and Texas.   Supporters of the bill for Primary suffrage included the wife of William Jennings Bryan.  Some cities had previously passed Municipal suffrage for women, including Florence Villa where Dr. Anna Howard Shaw had a winter home for several years.  However, in April 1919 the bill for statewide Primary suffrage was never brought up and the regular session ended. 

              Attempts to get Governor Catts to call a special session failed.  He insisted there was no assurance of ratification, as some men listed as supporters had a habit of changing their vote and he did not want to put the legislators on record.

              On May 13, 1969 Florida legislators ratified the 19^th Amendment.

SOUTH CAROLINA

In 1902 a woman suffrage convention was held in Charleston and Henry Blackwell and his daughter Alice Stone Blackwell highlighted the two-day activities.  Virginia Durant Young, editor of the Fairfax “Enterprise” was president.  When she died in 1906 the organization lapsed.  In 1914 Lavinia Engle was sent by the NAWSA to organize clubwomen.  She helped set up the State Equal Suffrage League which began with about 450 members and grew to 1,514 in 1916 and about 3000 in 1917.  About 100 attended a “suffrage school” in December.   Suffrage was endorsed by the State Federation of Labor, Federation of Women’s Clubs and the WCTU.

Suffragists requested the State Democratic Party to permit women to vote in the primary of 1919.  Party leaders rejected the idea by a vote of 249 to 58.  South Carolina Senator Benet denounced the women as paid propagandists.  The women challenged him to provide proof.  This was never done.  In October the Equal Suffrage League voted for a Federal Suffrage Amendment as a war measure.  The NAWSA sent Marjorie Shuler for a week for press and publicity work.

In January 1920, a joint resolution to ratify the Federal Suffrage Amendment was referred to the Senate Judiciary Committee which reported unfavorably.  The Senate agreed with the Committee, defeating the proposal 32 to 4.  In the House the motion to refer the amendment to the Judiciary Committee was defeated 85 to 26.  Then the House voted 93 to 20 to reject.  Even anti-ratification men made strong speeches for justice and denounced the high-handed action of voting on a measure before sending it to committee.

On July 1, 1969 South Carolina legislators ratified the 19^th Amendment, which was certified on August 22, 1973.

GEORGIA

The first suffrage society in Georgia formed in 1890 and the first request for woman suffrage was put before the Legislature in 1895.  The State Suffrage Association joined the NAWSA in 1899 and continued pressure for a Federal amendment through the years. In 1910 letters and petitions were sent to President Taft, Georgia’s Senators and Congressmen urging suffrage. Many ministers of various denominations spoke from their pulpits in favor of woman suffrage in spite of opposition from bishops.  Lawyers and labor leaders also supported suffrage. Rebecca Felton joined the State association in 1912. Carrie Chapman Catt, Kate Gordon, Dr. Anna Howard Shaw and other national figures spoke eloquently in the state.  However, appeals to Senators and Congressmen were largely ignored.  The Georgia Men’s League for Woman Suffrage was organized in 1913 and assisted whenever possible.  On May 3, 1919 white women won the right to vote in the Municipal primary election on September 3, where 4000 white women voted after paying $1 each.

              Rebecca Felton, who became the first woman US Senator for one day in November, 1922, and her sister Mary McLendon attended the House of Representatives on May 21, 1919 where W.D. Upshaw was the only Congress member from Georgia to vote for submission of the Federal Suffrage bill to the states.  On June 4 Georgia Senator William Harris voted for the bill, one of the last two votes needed to pass the bill. 

              Even after the 19^th Amendment became law in August 1920, state officials denied the vote to women in the primary September 8.  Bainbridge Colby, the US Secretary of State, did not help.  He wrote to Mary McLendon: “The matter to which you refer is not within the province of this Department and I am not in a position to give you any advice with regard thereto.”  Demands for a special session of the legislature were denied by Governor Dorsey.   The Attorney General R. A. Denny advised the women to go to the polls and make the effort to vote, saying: “The 19^th Amendment is above the law of any State.”  Still women in Georgia were not permitted to vote in the presidential election 2 months after they had been enfranchised!

              On February 20, 1970 Georgia legislators ratified the 19^th Amendment.

LOUISIANA

Women suffragists in Louisiana were invigorated in 1900 when President Catt of the NAWSA called for conventions in the South to gain support in that area.  Although suffragists in Louisiana favored State-by-State suffrage bills, “The Suffrage Party conducted a vigorous fight for ratification of the Federal amendment from the opening of the Legislature May 10, 1920, until its defeat on June 15.”(History, vol. 6, p.229) 

In February 1920, John Parker, nominated to become Governor, strongly endorsed the Federal Suffrage Amendment joining many party leaders, newspaper editorials, lawyers and businessmen.  He said to the suffragist chairwomen, “I have always been for woman suffrage any way it could be obtained and I have never understood a suffragist’s taking any other stand.”  The Democratic Party called all suffrage organizations to form a Joint Ratification Committee comprised of men and women from all parts of the state. 

In March the National Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage managed to obtain the Legislative Speakership for an anti-suffragist, R. F. Walker.  And then Parker, who would become Governor on May 17, refused to receive a delegation of suffragists or work for women’s vote, claiming that he “was going to keep his hands off the suffrage fight; that it was a matter for the Legislature.” (History, vol. 6, p. 232)   At this time Louisiana could have provided the crucial 36^th state endorsement. Opposition was centered in New Orleans where many ward leaders were opposed to woman suffrage in any form.   The sitting Governor Pleasant submitted the Federal proposal to both Houses on May 13, but urged its defeat and in its place he proposed a State amendment.  This angered the anti-suffragists.  When Parker took office May 17, President Wilson telegraphed him: “May I not very respectfully urge your favorable interest and influence in the matter of the Federal Suffrage Amendment?  It seems to be of the deepest national significance and importance.”  Parker replied that among the legislators, all Democrats, such difference of opinion existed that any dictation on his part would be unwise.  Pleas for passage from Cox and other national leaders were ignored.  The final votes defeated both the Federal and State suffrage bills.  The chair of the Joint Ratification Committee declared: “The responsibility for the failure of this Federal Amendment to enfranchise 27,000,000 women, including those of Louisiana, rests on Governor John M. Parker.  This assertion is bourne out by every woman who lobbied at Baton Rouge and by all fair-minded men.  It was in his power to secure ratification the day the session opened; it was in his power the day Woodrow Wilson wired and asked his support; it was in his power when Governor Cox sent his request.  The women who, in their zeal for a broad-visioned progressive leader of clean, honest characteristics, did all in their power to elect him Governor – those are the women who in sorrow today must realize that it is the only thing he stood for that he did not ‘put across’ . . .”  (History, vol. 6, p. 235)

              On June 11, 1970 Louisiana legislators ratified the 19^th Amendment.

NORTH CAROLINA

 “The first bill for woman suffrage was introduced by Senator James L. Hyatt, Republican, of Yancey County and was referred to Committee on Insane Asylums.” (History, Vol. 6, p.500) this occurred in 1897.  Fifteen years later the Equal Suffrage League of North Carolina was organized with about 200 men and women from every class and section.  The next year, 1914, the NAWSA sent national field organizer Lavinia Engle to help Mrs. Archibald Henderson, the president, start more branches and distribute literature.   That year local suffragist leaders declared they were opposed to “militancy” in any form.  They desired “to gain the vote by appeal to reason and fair play.”  They sent a vigorous protest to Alice Paul when her visit seemed imminent.

On April 9, 1918 the State Republican convention included a suffrage plank in its platform.  The next day a group of suffragists urged similar action from the Democratic State Convention which refused to consider a suffrage statement.  Many citizens signed petitions urging suffrage, including 2 daughters of US Senator Simmons who opposed suffrage. Efforts to hold suffrage meetings on college campuses were denied by trustees.  Dr. Anna Howard Shaw, Jeannette Rankin and others spoke at rallies.  The State League listed on its letterhead an Advisory Committee of Men. This group of 96 supporters included Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels and William Jennings Bryan.  North Carolina was the only state to carry this acknowledgement.

Only one North Carolina Representative, Zebulon Weaver of Asheville, voted “aye” for the Federal Suffrage Amendment in Congress.  A special session was called August 10, 1920 by Governor Bickett where ratification was considered.  Many hoped that North Carolina would be the 36^th state.  Support came from state elected officials, college presidents, judges and mayors.

However, on August 11 a letter signed by 63 members of the House was sent to the General Assembly of Tennessee, where the fight for ratification was in progress, saying, “We, the undersigned, members of the House of Representatives of the General Assembly of North Carolina, constituting a majority of said body, send greetings and assure you that we will not ratify the Susan B. Anthony amendment interfering with the sovereignty of Tennessee and other states of the Union.  We most respectfully request that this measure be not forced upon the people of North Carolina.”  (History, vol. 6, p. 498)

The Governor addressed the General Assembly on August 13 agreeing with anti-suffrage feeling and admitting, “I have never been impressed with the wisdom of or the necessity for woman suffrage in North Carolina.”  Then he set out arguments against suffrage, quoted poetry and concluded; “It is an absolute moral certainty that inside of six months some State will open the door and women will enter the political forum.  No great movement in all history has ever gone so near the top and then failed to go over.  The very most this General Assembly can do is to delay for six months a movement it is powerless to defeat.  I am profoundly convinced that it would be the part of wisdom and grace to accept the inevitable and ratify the amendment.”  (History, Vol. 6, p. 498.)

On August 17, when ratification by the State Senate seemed entirely possible, an opponent moved to defer action until the 1921 session.  This passed 25 to 23, ending any hope of North Carolina’s becoming the 36^th state.

On May 6, 1971 North Carolina legislators ratified the 19^th Amendment.

MISSISSIPPI

The Mississippi Woman Suffrage Association was organized in 1897 after the WCTU’s work for women’s rights included the need for votes for women.  However, no state suffrage conventions were held from 1899 to 1906 although interest was maintained by addresses by Carrie Chapman Catt in 6 cities in 1901 and speeches by Dr. Anna Howard Shaw in 3 cities in 1904.  In December 1906 Belle Kearney and three friends reorganized the State Suffrage Association.  More than 200 newspaper editors were interviewed; 21 agreed to publish articles supporting woman suffrage.  Adverse articles were carefully answered and many antis were converted.  A few prominent men were stanch supporters through the years.

              For the March 3, 1913 parade in Washington, a daughter of a Congressman represented the state on a handsome float.  Materials were made available at the State Fair and a gold medal was awarded to the best arguments for woman suffrage by a college student.  At that time women had won suffrage in 12 states – “Why not in Mississippi?” was the cry.  Opposition was strong, however and the request for endorsement of the state Federation of Women’s Clubs was defeated in 1916.  After determined agitation, endorsement was passed almost unanimously in

1917.    In 1919 the State Teachers’ Association strongly supported woman suffrage.  Still at the state level the

WCTU did not officially support votes for women; a minority overruled the wishes of a majority of its members.

              Suffragist Governor Theodore Bilbo in his farewell speech to the legislature said, “Woe to that man who raises his hand against the onward march of this progressive movement!”  In March 1920 the state senate voted to ratify the 19^th amendment on an even 21-21 vote with the Lieut. Governor voting in favor.  Pressure was put on the House to make Mississippi the 36^th state to ratify.  Amid the confusion and noise Rep. R.H. Watts exclaimed “I would die and go to hell before I would vote for it.”  The Senate substitute motion was defeated 94 to 23 on March 31, 1920.

         `Even after the 19^th Amendment was ratified, women in Mississippi and Georgia were denied voting for president until 1924 because the state constitution in each state required registration 4 months before Election Day.

On March 22, 1984 Mississippi legislators ratified the 19^th Amendment, the last of the 48 states to do so

ANTI-SUFFRAGE OPPOSITION OVERCOME!

Material produced by anti-suffrage associations had to be countered, corrected and refuted with logic and facts in many campaigns including the drive in Nebraska.  The attached 3-page letter from the Nebraska Men’s Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage is the last document of the 6-volume History of Woman Suffrage and is a sample of the opposition faced for 72 years.  In Nebraska, suffragists had collected more than 50,000 signatures for a suffrage amendment to the state constitution to be placed on the ballot.   It failed in the general election of 1914 by a vote of 100,000 to 90,000.  Continued hard work educating the public and changing minds of state legislators led to winning woman suffrage in 1917.  The Nebraska House voted 73 to 24 and the Senate voted 20 to 13.  On August 2, 1919 Nebraska’s legislature voted unanimously for the Federal Amendment becoming the fourteenth state to ratify.

INTERNATIONAL OBSTACLES

New Zealand women won the right to vote in 1893.  Before victory they too met strong opposition.  Linda Shevitz found this sample of anti-suffrage venom on a recent visit:

Notice to epicene women: electioneering women are requested not to call here . . . They are recommended to go home, to look after their children, cook their husbands’ dinners, empty the slops, and generally attend to the domestic affairs for which nature designed them.  By taking this advice, they will gain the respect of all right-minded people – an end not to be attained by unsexing themselves and meddling in masculine concerns of which they are profoundly ignorant. (Henry Wright, Wellington, New Zealand, 1893)

MORE READINGS

              These are some of the experiences faced by the suffragists, described by the women who labored so hard for success.  Many more interesting facts about the struggles in all states and territories are found in the History of Woman Suffrage and also in books written by and about many of the suffragists.